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二人三脚 ninin sankyaku Two People, Three Legs

二人三脚 (ninin sankyaku), the three-legged race and a figure for two people working together, was on the program of an athletic meeting of 1874 and became a figure for a cramping bond, for coalitions and partnerships, and, from a lecture of 1917, for a marriage.

Japanese Scroll of Two People, Three Legs (ninin sankyaku) — Calligraphy by Eri Takase
Two People, Three Legs (ninin sankyaku)

二人三脚 (ninin sankyaku): the three-legged race, and two people working together to see a thing through. A hand-brushed hanging scroll by Master Calligrapher Eri Takase on traditional Japanese paper.

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Abstract

二人三脚, ninin sankyaku, is the three-legged race and, as a figure, two people working together to see a thing through; the characters say two people, three legs. The race was on the program of the meeting usually counted as Japan's first athletic meeting, at the Imperial Naval College in Tokyo in March 1874, where the Japanese program gave it a name in the manner of Chinese verse, 蛺蝶趁花, the butterfly chasing flowers, and where, an English newspaper reported, the two leading couples fell; the word 二人三脚 is in print from 1885. As a figure, in the witnesses the history found, it is first the bond as a hindrance (1913), then a coalition in politics, and from a lecture to teachers in 1917 a marriage, which by 1939 is a comparison one often hears and in a model wedding speech of 1952 that the manuals copied for a decade, so that by the 1960s it is a stock line of the wedding reception, though the dictionaries' own examples of the figure are of firms, priests and a student and his teacher. The race holds the figure's whole argument from its first day: bound together, two people go as fast as their step agrees, and if one falls, both fall.

Overview

The sense. The dictionaries give two senses: the race, in which two people stand side by side with their inner ankles tied and run on three legs, and, figuratively, two people working together to carry something through, 二人で協力して事をなしとげていくことのたとえ [1]. Their examples of the figure are a novel of 1963, the two priests of a temple in 1979, a speaker addressing his teacher in 1982, and, in a modern dictionary's own sentence, government and business, 官民の二人三脚で研究を進める [1]; read in context in the Diet Library's full text, the 1963 pair are a bank and a client firm and the 1982 speaker is a student who feels his teacher to be his father [2][3]. JMdict gives cooperation with singleness of purpose (e.g. between companies); operating in tandem [4]. None of the Japanese dictionaries cited here gives a marriage as its example, and none records the marriage sense apart from the general one. That sense lives in the lectures, the women's magazines, the advice books and the wedding speech from 1917 on, set out in the historical record below; an English learner's dictionary of 2002 is the one dictionary the history read that gives the wedding as its example [5]. The witnesses hold all of these side by side: the race; the bond as hindrance; the partnership of two firms, two parties or two people at a task; and the couple.

The words. 二人 is read ninin, the Sino-Japanese reading of two persons, and not futari: every dictionary heads the word ににんさんきゃく [1][4], and the readings in print the history cites agree: Ninin-sankyaku-kyōsō in a Japanese-English dictionary of 1904 [6]; ninin sankyaku, in katakana, as the headword of an encyclopedia of 1916, in the Diet Library's full text [7]; and 【ニニンサンキヤク】 in a dictionary of physical education of 1928, which glosses it スリー・レッグド・レースの事, the three-legged race, pairs with their inner legs tied who race a set distance 各よく步調を合はせて, each keeping step [8]. 三脚 is sankyaku, three legs. The word first stood with 競走, race, after it, 二人三脚競走, and dropped it as it became the name of the game; the program of 1874 describes the race, before the word existed, as 二頭三脚, two heads, three legs [9].

The text in English. The race came to Japan from English, and its English name came with it: the English program of 1874 lists Three Legged Race [10]. The Japanese-English dictionaries give the word that equation from the first: three-legged race in 1904 [6], and in 1942 both a three-legged race and, under 競走, a three-footed race [11]. JMdict adds the figure, cooperation with singleness of purpose [4]. The marriage figure reached an English dictionary in 2002, in an example from a wedding speech whose translation drops the race [5].

The historical record

21 March 1874. The program of the 競闘遊戯, Athletic Sports, at the 海軍兵学寮, the Imperial Naval College in Tokyo. The meeting the dictionaries count as the beginning of the Japanese 運動会, the school sports day, was held by the college under its British naval instructors [12], and the English program lists, as its seventh event, 7 Three Legged Race. 1st Prize Bag. 2nd Pair Gloves, Pocket Book & Towel. [10] The Japanese program reordered the eighteen events and gave each two names, one in Chinese characters and one in Japanese, because teachers of Chinese and Japanese learning joined the teachers of English in translating it [13]. The race is the ninth event of the fifth round [9]:

第五場 第九般 蛺蝶趁花 てふのはなおひ

Fifth round, ninth event: the butterfly chasing flowers; the butterfly's flower chase. The program's rules describe it: 第九般 二人ヲ並ベテ左者ノ右脚ト右者ノ左脚ト緊紮シ二頭三脚ニシテ疾驅セシム, ninth event: two are set side by side, the right leg of the one on the left and the left leg of the one on the right are bound fast, and, two heads on three legs, they are made to run [9]. The sheet is dated 皇紀二千五百三十四年 三月一日, 1 March 1874, and announces the meeting for the 11th [9]; the navy's notices of 8 March set it for the 11th, and rain put it off to the 16th and then to the 21st [14][15]. A newspaper of the day printed the events by their Japanese names alone, the race as 第五場 第九般、てうの花をひ [16]. An English report of the meeting, in the mail summary of The Japan Gazette of 26 March and reprinted in The Far East, says the sports came off on Saturday afternoon, the 21st [17][18]:

The three-legged race was a source of great amusement to the native spectators. It was well contested, the fall of the two leading couples adding greatly to the fun.

The same report credits Captain Douglas and the officers and blue jackets attached to the College with the first of the kind, we believe, ever attempted by exclusively Japanese competitors [17]. A critic signing himself the Man on the Mountain objected, in a letter after the program was published, to its cost and to the time lost before the examinations, and asked what 蛺蝶趁花 was for; as a modern historian paraphrases him from a biography of Douglas [19]:

将来放縦にふるまいそうな連中をあらかじめ懲罰しておこうとでもいうのか。それとも戦争で足を失った人をくっつけて一人の兵士にでもする手立てか

Was it to punish in advance those likely to run wild later? Or was it a means of tying together men who had lost a leg in war to make one soldier? So at that meeting the race was already read as a figure, and the figure was a mocking one. An art critic who quoted the program in 1933 noticed the names: these events, he wrote, were named 支那趣味の表現で, in the expression of a taste for China, where the games of his own day were called by Western words [20].

1885. Tsuboi Gendō 坪井玄道 and a colleague, 戸外遊戯法, a book of outdoor games. The earliest dated print of the word in the Diet Library's full text. A teacher at the government's gymnastics institute, the 体操伝習所, and his co-editor give the race its rules, under its ninth heading [21]:

第九 二人三脚競走 二人三脚競走トハ二人並立シ紐ヲ以テ甲ノ右脚ト乙ノ左脚トヲ縛シテ一組トナシタルモノ、四組或ハ五組ヨリ成立ツモノナリ

Ninth: the three-legged race. The three-legged race is made of four or five pairs, each pair two people standing side by side with the right leg of the one and the left leg of the other bound with a cord. A book of Western outdoor games of the same year gives the English name, three-legged race, in katakana, in the Diet Library's full text; its pages are not served outside Japan [22]. From here the race is in the game books and school programs year after year.

1888. Masaoka Shiki 正岡子規, 筆まかせ, a student's notebook. The national dictionary's first example of the word, which it dates by the notebook's span, 1884–92 [1]; the notebook's own table of contents files the essay, headed Base ball, under 明治廿一年, 1888 [23]. The young Shiki, ranking the games of the school sports day against baseball, finds the field games beneath it [23]:

戴嚢、嚢脚、二人三脚、旗拾ひ … などハ小供だまし

The bag on the head, the sack race, the three-legged race, flag-gathering … are children's tricks. The national dictionary prints the sentence's end, 小供だましといつつべし, and gives it as its first example of the word [1].

1910. A likeness of gait. A novel of 1910 has a one-legged man hauled along by the arm, 恰も二人三脚の競走の如くして走り出した, ran off just like a three-legged race [24]. It compares a way of running, not yet a bond.

1913. Miyake Setsurei 三宅雪嶺, 明治思想小史, an essay on Meiji thought. The earliest use of the race as a figure for a bond in the Diet Library's full text, as searched for this history, and the bond is a hindrance. Christianity, Miyake writes, is the slowest thing in Europe and America to progress [25]:

古代猶太の傳說を信ぜねばならぬとあつては、二人三脚で走るよりも尙窮屈である、とても當り前に進めぬ

Bound to believe the legends of ancient Judaea, it is more cramped than running a three-legged race; it cannot go forward in the ordinary way.

1916–1937. Politics. A book on the politics of the day, by a writer signing himself the recluse north of the castle, 城北隠士, heads a chapter 政界の二人三脚競走, the three-legged race of the political world, and describes a coalition: 一脚の蹉躓を來せば他の一脚も顚倒し, if one leg stumbles, the other falls too [26]. A speech in the Diet in 1924 speaks of 二人ノ總裁ヲ戴イタル三派、卽チ二人三脚内閣, three parties under two presidents, that is, the three-legged cabinet [27], and a yearbook of 1937 says the public gave the name to a cabinet of eight ministers holding thirteen posts [28]. Here the figure is the coalition, the partners bound by need and each at the mercy of the other's stumble.

1917, printed 1918. Yamashita Nobuyoshi 山下信義, a lecture to teachers. The earliest use of the figure for a marriage in the Diet Library's full text, as searched for this history. A graduate in law, 法學士, lecturing at a summer course of the Toyama teachers' association, printed the following March [29]:

夫婦は二人三脚の組の如きもので、共に調子を合せぬと一人が失脚すれば二人共に禍を蒙るのである。

Husband and wife are like a pair in the three-legged race: unless they keep time together, when one loses his footing both come to grief. He goes on from the couple's step to the step of a village and a nation. One page earlier the same lecture sets 愛, love, against 敬, respect, in the household, and says that a household lacking respect cannot keep from disorder [29]: the pairing Takagami Kakushō would tie to the figure in the 1930s stands beside it in the earliest witness of the marriage figure the history cites.

1927–1930. Okamoto Ippei 岡本一平, 人生漫談. In a dialogue first printed, by the Diet Library's full text, in the women's magazine 婦女界 in 1927 [30] and collected in his 人生漫談 of 1930, under his own drawing of a couple, 夫 and 婦, walking arm in arm, a character answers in one sentence [31]:

『夫婦は二人三脚の競走のようなもので、家庭は人肌のお湯に入つてるやうなものさ。入つてれば何とも無いが出れば寒い』

Husband and wife are like a three-legged race, and the home is like a bath at the warmth of the skin: while you are in it you feel nothing, but get out and you are cold. An essay in the same book, headed 二人三脚, gives the figure to others and says how it goes [31]:

夫婦が互に拘束しもし、もたれ合ひもして人生の行旅を行くのは丁度二人三脚の競走に似てゐると思つてる人がある。夫婦の二人三脚だ。夫婦足拍子揃へて行く時に世渡りの進行は早い。二人の足並がちぐはぐになつたらひつくりかへる。

There are people who think that a husband and wife going the road of life, each binding the other and each leaning on the other, are just like a three-legged race. The couple's three-legged race. When the two keep step their way through the world goes fast. When their steps fall out, over they go.

1932. Satō Haruo 佐藤春夫, 中年の夫婦読本, a married couple's reader. The book's pages are not served outside Japan; what follows is read in the Diet Library's full text of his collected works of 1932 [32]. Written in 1932 at the request of the publisher, it has a chapter on married life as a three-legged race, and in it Satō says where he had the figure: a younger friend found it for himself some years before, on his marriage, as a figure for what to look for in a partner and how to keep a marriage after, and Satō, agreeing that it was apt, took it up, addressing himself to readers who had run the race as children. Later he hopes the friend is not now lamenting that married life is a three-legged race run over the hurdles [32]. On Satō's account the friend did not take the figure from a book; he found it, as anyone who had run the race as a child might.

1936–1939. Takagami Kakushō 高神覚昇, a Buddhist lecturer. The figure joins the pairing of love and respect. In his 新興日本と宗教 of 1936, read in the Diet Library's full text, he says that husband and wife are a three-legged race to the end, but that respect without love makes it two people on four legs [33]. In 1937 he says when he first gave it to a couple [34]:

昨年の二月です。私は初めて結婚の媒酌をしました。その時新郞新婦にいつたことですが、夫婦生活は二人三脚の心得でやらねばいけない。二人三脚をやるには、體力が平均するばかりではいけない。二人の氣持ちが合つてゐなければいけないといつたことです。

It was February last year. I acted as go-between at a wedding for the first time, and what I said to the bride and groom was that married life must be run in the spirit of the three-legged race: for the race it is not enough that the two are even in strength; their hearts must be as one. In the 1939 edition of his lectures on the Heart Sutra, again in the full text: husband and wife must be a three-legged race; love alone is one person on one leg, respect alone two people on four [35].

1939. A wedding speech. An education journal, read in the Diet Library's full text, reports a wedding banquet at which the groom's teacher at the Imperial University, Dr. Sano Hidenosuke 佐野秀之助, spoke of the three-legged race as a figure, and the writer comments that the likeness of husband and wife to a pair running that race is a comparison one often hears, and the more one chews on it the more flavor it gives [36]. It is the earliest witness of the figure in a wedding speech that the history cites, and by then the writer calls it a commonplace.

1939–1942. 夫婦二人三脚, a real race. The compound 夫婦二人三脚, the husband-and-wife three-legged race, first names an event: the government's weekly of September 1939, read in the Diet Library's full text, lists it among the events of the community sports day, between a three-generation relay and a brothers-and-sisters relay [37]. Couples ran the race before the compound named a couple running a household or a shop.

1944. 心の衛生, a book on mental hygiene. Imamura Shōichi 今村正一 also sets the race over hurdles [38]:

この意味において結婚は恰も、二人三脚の精神的束縛の態勢を執つて、障害物競走にも似た、人生のコースを疾走する長距離競走のやうなものである。

In this sense marriage is like a long-distance race over the course of life, run in the posture of a three-legged race's bond of the spirit, and like an obstacle race. Unless the two keep their breath together, he goes on, they hinder each other rather than help [38].

1952. The model wedding speech. A book of model speeches, read in the Diet Library's full text, has the figure in a toast to the couple: the speaker truly thinks that marriage, no, husband and wife, are life's three-legged race, and that the two have from this day made their start in it [39]. The same speech, near word for word, is reprinted through the speech manuals of the next decade, in 1960 and 1963 among them [40][41]: one model speech copied, not ten speakers. By the 1960s the figure is a stock line of the wedding reception.

What is not a source. 二人三脚 is four characters but not a 四字熟語 of the classics: it is a Meiji name for a game that came from English, in print, in the Diet Library's full text, from 1885. The 1874 name 蛺蝶趁花 is the race's name in the manner of Chinese verse, given by its translators, and not a source of the figure. The English marriage is a three-legged race is earliest, in the Internet Archive's full text, in Punch in 1956, as a joke, Papa says marriage is a three-legged race with only one set of contestants [42]; the Japanese figure is older and earnest from the earliest witness the history cites, and nothing the history read shows either borrowing from the other.

The word in English

1874. The Japan Gazette. The earliest English account of the race in Japan the history cites is the report of the 1874 meeting, quoted above: a source of great amusement to the native spectators, with the fall of the two leading couples [17].

1894. Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, vol. 2, p. 441. At the sports day of all the schools of Shimane, in the castle grounds at Matsue on 15 October 1890, Hearn saw the race and did not name it [43]: There were races in which the runners were tied together in pairs, the left leg of one to the right leg of the other.

1904–1942. The dictionaries. Ninin-sankyaku-kyōsō, 二人三脚競爭 … three-legged race [6]; in 1942, a three-legged race, and under 競走 a three-footed race [11]. They give the game and not the figure.

2002. Jeff Garrison and others, Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms, p. 450. NININ-SANKYAKU "two people, three legs" a three-legged race, cooperating with singleness of purpose, working together to achieve the same goal, with a wedding example [5]: 今日からは新郎新婦力を合わせて、仲良く二人三脚の人生をお送り下さい。 To the bride and groom I say, please join forces to live in happy harmony from this day on. The example is the speech the Japanese record shows, and its translation drops the race the figure turns on.

Today: JMdict gives three-legged race and cooperation with singleness of purpose (e.g. between companies); operating in tandem [4]. The text is brushed in the form the dictionaries head, 二人三脚. Two people, three legs renders the four characters word for word; what a rendering must keep is that the three legs are a race's, so that the figure carries both its halves, the help and the fall.

A reading

The figure is in the race, and that is why it was found more than once. On the day the race first ran in Japan the two leading couples fell and the crowd laughed; a critic had already asked whether it was a way to tie two maimed soldiers into one. The earliest writer the history cites using the race as a figure, in 1913, used it for a bond that holds you back. The earliest it cites using it for a marriage, in 1917, said the same thing as the crowd saw: if one loses his footing, both come to grief. Satō Haruo's young friend found the figure for himself on his marriage, and Satō expected anyone who had run the race as a child to see it; Takagami Kakushō gave it to the first couple he married and added what it needs, love and respect together, since either alone leaves one leg or four. By 1939 it was a comparison one often heard, and by the 1950s a line in a model speech copied for a decade. The dictionaries record the partnership, of firms, of priests, of a student and a teacher, and not the marriage; the marriage is the sense the speeches and the advice books carry, and it is the sense a couple's scroll stands on. I read it as the figure's fullest sense without taking it for the only one: the same four characters name a coalition and a joint enterprise, and a buyer may hang them for a partnership of any kind. What I would not let a rendering lose is the half the wedding speech leaves out. The race is not won by the stronger runner or by speed: it is won by keeping step, and the bond that carries the two forward is the bond that brings them both down when one stumbles. The figure promises nothing; it says what the two must do.

Notes

Sources not seen

A. C. Douglas, Life of Admiral Sir Archibald Lucius Douglas (Totnes: Mortimer Bros, 1938), pp. 65–67, by his son, which a modern study cites for the letter signed the Man on the Mountain [19]. It would give the letter in its own words and name the paper it ran in, where the history now carries a historian's Japanese paraphrase.

佐藤春夫全集 (1932), the chapter of 中年の夫婦読本 on married life as a three-legged race, at the National Diet Library, pid 1147203, whose pages are served only in Japan [32]. It would give the chapter whole, where the history reports only the sentences of it known in the library's text.

The pages of the 1885 西洋戸外遊戯法 [22], the 1916 encyclopedia [7], Takagami's books of 1936 and 1939 [33][35], the government's weekly of September 1939 [37] and the 1952 book of model speeches [39] are likewise not served outside Japan; the history reports them in English from the Diet Library's full text and quotes none of them.

帝国教育, January 1939, at the National Diet Library, pid 1570681, served only in Japan [36]. It would give the whole report of the wedding banquet and Dr. Sano's speech.

A reader with access to any of these is invited to write to Takase Studios at Tim@Takase.com.

References

  1. 「二人三脚」, デジタル大辞泉, 精選版 日本国語大辞典 and 四字熟語を知る辞典, at kotobank. https://kotobank.jp/word/二人三脚-592513
  2. 井上ひさし, 『国語事件殺人辞典』, in 『井上ひさしの世界』, 1982. National Diet Library pid 12462433 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12462433
  3. 邦光史郎, 『泥の勲章』, 1963. National Diet Library pid 1649849 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1649849
  4. JMdict, 「二人三脚」 (1462490). https://jisho.org/word/二人三脚
  5. Jeff Garrison, Kayoko Kimiya, George Wallace and Masahiko Goshi, Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms, Kodansha International, Tokyo, 2002, p. 450.
  6. 佐久間信恭, 『和英中辞林』, 郁文社, 1904, scan 395. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/870208/1/395
  7. 『大正百科辞典』, 1916. National Diet Library pid 950481 (full text; the page is not served outside Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/950481
  8. 『体育辞典』, 1928, scan 176. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1132772/1/176
  9. 海軍兵学寮, 『競闘標目』, dated 皇紀二千五百三十四年 三月一日 (1874), National Archives of Japan; the scan at Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Athletic_Sports_programme_1874_ja_01.jpg
  10. Imperial Naval College. Athletic Sports, programme for 11 March 1874, National Archives of Japan; the scan at Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Athletic_Sports_programme_1874_en.jpg
  11. Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, American edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1942, s.v. ni-nin and kyōsō.
  12. 「運動会」, 精選版 日本国語大辞典 and 世界大百科事典, at kotobank. https://kotobank.jp/word/運動会-167497
  13. 木村吉次, 「海軍兵学寮の競闘遊戯会に関する一考察」, 『教育学研究』 63-2, 1996, pp. 129–138. https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku1932.63.129
  14. 『法令全書』 明治七年, p. 790, 海軍省 甲第三十號 (8 March 1874). National Diet Library pid 787954. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/787954
  15. 『公布索引』, 1877, p. 797. National Diet Library pid 787517. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/787517
  16. 『新聞集成明治編年史』 第二卷, 1936 (read in the limited reprint of 1940), p. 317, reprinting 『新聞雜誌』, March 1874, scan 94. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1920332/1/94
  17. The Japan Gazette, mail summary, Tokei and Yokohama, 26 March 1874, "Naval College Athletic Sports", leaf n221. https://archive.org/details/japan-gazette-1873sept/page/n221
  18. The Far East, vol. 5, 1874, p. 203. Internet Archive thefareastvol.51874. https://archive.org/details/thefareastvol.51874
  19. 髙嶋航, 「菊と星と五輪 ―1920年代における日本陸海軍のスポーツ熱―」, 『京都大學文學部研究紀要』 52, 2013, pp. 195–286, at p. 202. https://hdl.handle.net/2433/173921
  20. 金原省吾, 『構想の研究』, 1933, p. 176, scan 55. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1210312/1/55
  21. 坪井玄道, 田中盛業 編, 『戸外遊戯法 一名・戸外運動法』, 1885, scan 24. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/859965/1/24
  22. 『西洋戸外遊戯法』, 1885. National Diet Library pid 860313 (full text; the page is not served outside Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/860313
  23. 沐猴冠者 (正岡子規), 『筆まかせ』 第一編, manuscript, the essay Base ball filed under 明治廿一年 (1888) in its table of contents (scans 5–6), scan 53. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/2546161/1/53
  24. 江見水蔭, 『牡丹族』, 1910, scan 136. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/888212/1/136
  25. 三宅雪嶺, 『明治思想小史』, 丙午出版社, 1913, scan 58. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/951718/1/58
  26. 城北隠士, 『大正政界之裏面』, 1916, scan 148. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/936068/1/148
  27. 『帝国議会衆議院議事摘要』 第49回, 1924, p. 485, scan 62. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1335193/1/62
  28. 『朝日年鑑』 昭和13年, 1937, p. 508, scan 64. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1072267/1/64
  29. 山下信義, 「自我の整理と一事貫行主義」, in 富山県教育会 編, 『夏期講習録』 大正六年度, 1918, scans 19–20. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/937605/1/20
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  31. 岡本一平, 『人生漫談』, 先進社, 1930, scans 124 and 221 (p. 426). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1189764/1/124
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  33. 高神覚昇, 『新興日本と宗教』, 1936. National Diet Library pid 1220500 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1220500
  34. 高神覚昇, 『大乗仏教の真髄』, 1937, p. 9, scan 6. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1100698/1/6
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  36. 『帝国教育』, January 1939. National Diet Library pid 1570681 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1570681
  37. 情報局, 『週報』, September 1939. National Diet Library pid 1594810 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1594810
  38. 今村正一, 『心の衛生』, 三省堂, 1944, p. 216, scan 118. https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1045779/1/118
  39. 講談社 編, 『式辞挨拶演説集』, 1952. National Diet Library pid 2460005 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/2460005
  40. 『簡単で親切な結婚披露の挨拶と祝辞』, 1960. National Diet Library pid 2492115 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/2492115
  41. 『結婚披露の挨拶：応用自在』, 1963. National Diet Library pid 2498896 (full text; the page is served only in Japan). https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/2498896
  42. Punch, 8 August 1956. Internet Archive sim_punch_1956-08-08_231_6049. https://archive.org/details/sim_punch_1956-08-08_231_6049
  43. Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, vol. 2, Houghton, Mifflin, Boston and New York, 1894, p. 441. Internet Archive glimpsesofunfami02hear. https://archive.org/details/glimpsesofunfami02hear

Authors

Tim Jackowski (Systems Architect, Takase Studios, LLC) · 典 Ten (Anthropic Claude Opus 5.5, Takase Studios LLC)

AI written · Ten wrote the history. Tim Jackowski commissioned it and answers for it.

Not yet reviewed.